Statistical survey

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Statistical surveys are used to conduct quantitative research about items in a population. Surveys of human populations and institutions are common in political polling and government, health, social science and marketing research. A survey may focus on opinions or factual information depending on its purpose, and many surveys involve administering questions to individuals. When the questions are administered by a researcher, the survey is called a structured interview or a researcher-administered survey. When the questions are administered by the respondent, the survey is referred to as a questionnaire or a self-administered survey.

Description

The questions are usually structured and standardized. The structure is intended to reduce bias. For example, questions should be ordered in such a way that a question does not influence the response to subsequent questions. Surveys are standardized to ensure reliability, generalizability, and validity. Every respondent should be presented with the same questions and in the same order as other respondents [Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_survey]. The growth of the Internet has impacted on virtually every aspect of society. The use of on-line surveys in research is no exception. The interest in Web-based surveying is not surprising as it offers a number of distinct advantages over more traditional mail and phone techniques. Examples include reducing the time and cost of conducting a survey and avoiding the often error prone and tedious task of data entry [Medin, Roy & Ann, 1999].

History

The word statistics ultimately derives from the modern Latin term statisticum collegium ("council of state") and the Italian word statista ("statesman" or "politician"). The German Statistik, first introduced by Gottfried Achenwall (1749), originally designated the analysis of data about the state, signifying the "science of state" (then called political arithmetic in English). It acquired the meaning of the collection and classification of data generally in the early 19th century. It was introduced into English by Sir John Sinclair.

Thus, the original principal purpose of Statistik was data to be used by governmental and (often centralized) administrative bodies. The collection of data about states and localities continues, largely through national and international statistical services. In particular, censuses provide regular information about the population.

During the 20th century, the creation of precise instruments for public health concerns (epidemiology, biostatistics, etc.) and economic and social purposes (unemployment rate, econometry, etc.) necessitated substantial advances in statistical practices: the Western welfare states developed after World War I had to possess specific knowledge of the "population". Philosophers such as Michel Foucault have argued that this constitutes a form of "biopower", a term which has since been used by many other authors [Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics].

Surveys in some form have probably existed since people first became interested in the opinions and behavior of others. The censuses mentioned in many ancient documents are simple surveys: these surveys asked respondents where they lived, how large their family was, and sometimes other questions as well. The use of mathematics and statistics to ensure that surveys represented a sample of the population, however, did not become widespread until the 20th century. Today, instant communications have made surveys conducted by telephone or the Internet possible [Conduct a Survey, http://encyclopedias.abcclio.com/WomensMovement/StudentResources/GoDoIt/Survey/GoDoIt_ConductSurvey.asp].

Principal Use

E-mail offers one option for distributing Internet surveys. Up until a few years ago, e-mail surveys were the predominate means of Internet surveying. As the World Wide Web (WWW) has grown in popularity, the use of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) forms or Web-based surveys are becoming the dominant method of gathering survey data. These forms streamline the data collection process formatting and entering responses directly into a database for analysis. Since HTML forms can be made programmable, it is also possible to have real time error checking and correction increasing the accuracy of the data collection process. The formatting capabilities of HTML allow the creation of easy-to-read and attractive forms that may improve response rates. In addition, the programmability of HTML forms makes it possible to randomly order responses and tailor options based on information the respondent supplies earlier in the survey.

Combining an e-mail "cover letter" as a means of contacting sampled people with the use of an HTML form for data collection provides an especially effective and efficient approach to Internet surveying. Modern e-mail packages automatically convert universal resource locators (URLs) or web-addresses in the text of an e-mail into hyperlinks. Placing the URL of the survey form in a cover letter e-mail allows the respondent to "click" their mouse on the URL to display the survey form and subsequently fill it out [Solomon, 2001].

Currently, the biggest concern in Internet surveying is coverage bias or bias due to sampled people not having or choosing not to access the Internet [Kay & Johnson, 1999; Crawford, Couper & Lamias, 2001].There are specific populations where Internet access is extremely high and coverage bias is likely to be less of a concern. College students and university faculty within the USA, Canada and Western Europe are examples of such populations. Even though coverage bias may be less of an issue in these groups, experience and comfort with Internet-based tools such as Web browsers is another serious potential source of bias both in response rates and the way people respond to the survey [Dillman, Tortora & Bowker, 2001].

Web-based electronic surveys must use principles of sound survey design. Research studies must also focus on the adaptability of such principles for electronic survey formats so that survey professionals can take full advantage of the benefits of such surveys without sacrificing the integrity of their data and placing respondents at risk in terms of confidentiality and privacy [Shannon, Johnson, Searcy & Lott, 2002].

Advantages

Advantages of self-administered survey questionnaires include:

  • It is an efficient way of collecting information from a large number of respondents. Very large samples are possible. Statistical techniques can be used to determine validity, reliability and statistical significance.
  • Surveys are flexible in the sense that a wide range of information can be collected. They can be used to study attitudes, values, beliefs and past behaviors.
  • Because they are standardized, they are relatively free from several types of errors.
  • They are relatively easy to administer.
  • There is an economy in data collection due to the focus provided by standardized questions. Only questions of interest to the researcher are asked, recorded, codified, and analyzed. Time and money is not spent on tangential questions.
  • They are less expensive than interviews.
  • They do not require a large staff of skilled interviewers.
  • They can be administered in large numbers all at one place and time.
  • Anonymity and privacy encourage more candid and honest responses.
  • Lack of interviewer bias.
  • Speed of administration and analysis.
  • Suitable for computer based research methods.
  • Less pressure on respondents.

Shortcomings

Disadvantages of self-administered survey questionnaires include:

  • They depend on subjects’ motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond. Subjects may not be aware of their reasons for any given action. They may have forgotten their reasons. They may not be motivated to give accurate answers; in fact, they may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light.
  • Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables.
  • Although the chosen survey individuals are often a random sample, errors due to non-response may exist. That is, people who choose to respond on the survey may be different from those who do not respond, thus biasing the estimates.
  • Survey question answer-choices could lead to vague data sets because at times they are relative only to a personal abstract notion concerning "strength of choice". For instance the choice "moderately agree" may mean different things to different subjects, and to anyone interpreting the data for correlation. Even yes or no answers are problematic because subjects may for instance put "no" if the choice "only once" is not available.
  • Respondents are more likely to stop participating mid-way through the survey (drop-offs).
  • Respondents cannot ask for clarification.
  • Low response rate in some modes.
  • No interviewer intervention available for probing or explanation.
  • Often respondents returning survey represent extremes of the population - skewed responses. [Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_survey]

Examples in Informatics

Gantenbein R, Cadez F, Hudnall S. B., “Establishing a rural telehealth project: the Wyoming network for telehealth. Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2004;4:3089-92. The State of Wyoming, USA, is developing a series of demonstration projects on the use of telehealth technology to improve health care accessibility and quality in a frontier region. The need for this project was established through a number of community-oriented data collections, including a statewide survey of health care providers on the topic of using technology to improve delivery of health care survey in the state.

Sim, N. Z., Kitteringham, L., Spitz, L., Pierro, A., Drake, D., Curry J., “Information on the World Wide Web--how useful is it for parents?” J Pediatr Surg. 2007 Feb;42(2):305-12. An enormous amount of information about pediatric surgical conditions is available on the World Wide Web (www). Over a 2-month period, all parents attending the surgical outpatient clinics were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding Internet use in seeking more information about their child's condition.

Ishikawa, K., Ohmichi, H., Umesato, Y., Terasaki, H.,Tsukuma, H., et al., “The guideline of the personal health data structure to secure safety healthcare: The balance between use and protection to satisfy the patients’ needs.” Int J Med Inform. 2007 Jan 13.

EHR

To inform about the impact of a recent movement towards a policy to develop integrative networked electronic health record (EHR) as a basis for cooperation among care teams and with patients and in support of safe patient care in Japan. The author headed a commission developing policy for health record (HR) structure and its computerization. It executed two questionnaire surveys as the basis for its work. One survey assessed the current state of computerization of health record in the hospitals certified by Japan Council for Quality Health Care (JCQHC). The other survey assessed the attitudes towards a specific EHR system in the Hiroshima University Hospital and its affiliate hospitals.

References

  1. Medin, C., Roy, S. & Ann, T. (1999) World Wide Web versus mail surveys: A comparison and report.. Paper presentation at ANZMAC99 Conference, Marketing in the Third Millennium, Sydney, Australia, available from http://www.anzmac99.unsw.edu.au/anzmacfiles/papers.htm
  2. Solomon, D. J., “Conducting Web-Based Surveys.” ERIC Digest, ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, College Park, MD, 2001. http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-2/surveys.htm
  3. Kaye B.K. & Johnson T.J. (1999) .Research Methodology: Taming the Cyber Frontier. Social Science Computer Review, 17, 323-337.
  4. Crawford, S.D., Couper, M.P.& Lamias, M.J.. (2001) Web Surveys: Perception of burden. Social Science Computer Review, 19,146-162.
  5. Dillman, D.A., Tortora, R.D. & Bowker, D. Principles for constructing web surveys. http://survey.sesrc.wsu.edu/dillman/papers.htm
  6. Shannon, D. M., Johnson, T. E., Searcy, S., Lott, A., “Survey Professionals Using Electronic Surveys.” ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, College Park, MD, 2002.